Epithalamin is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2025-07-23. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
The compound is described in the literature as a derivative of epithalamin, a preparation obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Work on this peptide family was carried out mainly by a research group in Saint Petersburg beginning in the 1980s, and the substance was later registered for clinical use in Russia under the name Epitalon. Outside that region it is generally treated as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Statements about its biological activity rest on a relatively small number of studies, and independent replication remains limited.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
Storage recommendations center on limiting moisture, heat, and light. The dry powder is generally kept at minus 20 degrees Celsius, and some suppliers recommend minus 80 degrees for long-term archival. Once dissolved, solutions are usually aliquoted and frozen to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, which can promote aggregation or degradation. Aqueous stability depends on pH and concentration, and buffered saline is often preferred over plain water for biological work. Stability data specific to epitalon remain limited, so general peptide-handling practices are applied by analogy rather than from product-specific validation.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its calculated monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons. The compound does not occur naturally as a free peptide; it is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Because it contains two acidic residues and no basic residues, the neutral form carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. This charge profile influences how the peptide behaves in solution and during chromatographic analysis.
Laboratory-grade epitalon is typically supplied as a lyophilized powder. Purity is commonly assessed with reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, often paired with mass spectrometry to confirm molecular identity. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping can provide additional confirmation of sequence. Certificates of analysis for research materials frequently report purity above 95 percent, although the methods behind such figures vary between suppliers. The absence of a pharmacopeial monograph means that no single standardized assay defines the compound, so reported results depend on the analytical protocol chosen.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic tetrapeptide | Four residues, linear chain |
| Residue sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Single-letter form AEDG |
| Calculated mass | 390.3 daltons | Value for the free, uncharged form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Usually supplied lyophilized |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Often handled as a salt form |
The compound is generally presented as a synthetic fragment of epithalamin, a pineal gland extract investigated in the former Soviet Union from the 1970s onward. Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues in Saint Petersburg developed short peptides modelled on such extracts, and epitalon became the most widely cited of those sequences. Most primary reports appeared in Russian-language journals or in proceedings with limited international circulation. Independent replication in laboratories outside that network remains sparse, and much repeated secondary material traces back to a small number of originating groups.
Laboratory work has examined effects on telomerase activity in cultured cells, on melatonin rhythms in animals, and on markers of oxidative stress. Some experiments report measurable changes while others show none, and the reported findings rest largely on small studies. The absence of large independent trials means the generality of these results is unresolved rather than settled. Review articles occasionally apply the label geroprotector, a term that reflects a research hypothesis about ageing rather than an established clinical finding.
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
== Spy&Go affinity purification == Mutation of the catalytic glutamic acid residue (E77) in SpyCatcher to alanine stops isopeptide bond formation but does not prevent the initial non-covalent SpyTag/SpyCatcher association. This non-covalent SpyTag/SpyCatcher interaction has been utilized in the affinity purification of SpyTag-fused recombinant proteins. In this purification strategy, termed Spy&Go, resin-immobilized SpyCatcher is used to harvest SpyTag-fused proteins from cell culture supernatants or cell lysates. Non-specifically bound proteins are removed by washing the resin with a neutral buffer and the target protein eluted at neutral pH using high imidazole concentration. The Spy&Go affinity resin is based on SpyCatcher2.1 E77A S49C variant termed SpyDock. SpyDock can be expressed in E. coli as soluble protein, purified using Ni-NTA and anion-exchange resins and immobilized to iodoacetyl-activated agarose through the unpaired cysteine introduced by the S49C substitution. In neutral buffers with physiological salt concentration SpyDock binds to SpyTag- and SpyTag002-fused proteins with affinity in the high nanomolar range (Kd = 750 ± 50 nM for SpyTag, Kd = 73 ± 13 nM for SpyTag002). Affinity to SpyTag003 has not been reported, but requires harsher conditions to ensure full dissociation suggesting it binds tighter. SpyDock-bound proteins are eluted by incubating the resin with 2.5 M imidazole in neutral buffer. The SpyDock resin can be regenerated several times using consecutive washes with 4 M imidazole, 6 M guanidinium hydrochloride and 0.1 M NaOH.
== Community engagement and education == Breakthrough T1D offers education and resources, in both English and Spanish, for people of all living with T1D. Some of those who receive support are parents who care for children with T1D, children attending school with T1D, pregnant women with T1D, college students with T1D, and adults with T1D. Whether it is caring for children with T1D, sending children back to school safely, pregnancy and T1D, living with T1D as an adult, college life and T1D, and support groups. Breakthrough T1D also arranges community engagement which allows newly diagnosed families to connect with other T1D families for mutual support.
During the Perestroika era of the Soviet Union of the late 1980s, many descendants of the Cossacks became enthusiastic about reviving their national traditions. In 1988, the Soviet Union passed a law allowing the reestablishment of former hosts and creation of new ones. The ataman of the largest, the Almighty Don Host, was granted Marshal rank and the right to form a new host. Simultaneously, many attempts were made to increase Cossack's impact on Russian society, and throughout the 1990s many regional authorities agreed to hand over some local administration and policing duties to the Cossacks. According to the 2002 Russian Census, 140,028 people self-identified as ethnic Cossacks. Between 3.5 and 5 million people associate themselves with the Cossack identity in post-Soviet Russia and around the world.
== Biochemistry == DTPA is more effective than EDTA to deactivate redox-active metal ions such as Fe(II)/(III), Mn(II)/(IV) and Cu(I)/(II) perpetuating oxidative damages induced in cells by superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. DTPA is also used in bioassays involving redox-active metal ions.
== Receptor == URP is an agonist for the UII receptor which is a G protein-coupled receptor with the alpha subunit Gαq11. This activates PKC which then activates PLC which increases the intercellular calcium concentration. It is found in many peripheral tissues, blood vessels, and also the brainstem cholinergic neurons of the laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) and the pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei (PPT).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Pharmacokinetics == Unlike many laxative products, lubiprostone does not show signs of drug tolerance, chemical dependency, or altered serum electrolyte concentration. Minimal distribution of the drug occurs beyond the immediate gastrointestinal tissues. Lubiprostone is rapidly metabolized by reduction/oxidation, mediated by carbonyl reductase. There is no metabolic involvement of the hepatic cytochrome P450 system. The measurable metabolite, M3, exists in very low levels in plasma and makes up less than 10% of the total administered dose. Data indicate that metabolism occurs locally in the stomach and jejunum.
=== Generic names === Pseudoephedrine is the generic name of the drug and its INNTooltip International Nonproprietary Name and BANTooltip British Approved Name, while pseudoéphédrine is its DCFTooltip Dénomination Commune Française and pseudoefedrina is its DCITTooltip Denominazione Comune Italiana. Pseudoephedrine hydrochloride is its USANTooltip United States Adopted Name and BANMTooltip British Approved Name in the case of the hydrochloride salt; pseudoephedrine sulfate is its USAN in the case of the sulfate salt; pseudoephedrine polistirex its USAN in the case of the polistirex form; and d-isoephedrine sulfate is its JANTooltip Japanese Accepted Name in the case of the sulfate salt. Pseudoephedrine is also known as Ψ-ephedrine and isoephedrine.
== Track listing == "Strange Meridian" (Russ Gershon) – 8:28 "Premonitions" (Curtis Hasselbring) – 5:29 "The Half-Life of Desire" (Gershon) – 5:30 "He Who Hesitates" (Hasselbring) – 7:54 "Temptation" (Nacio Herb Brown, Arthur Freed) – 5:17 "Circle in the Round/I Got It Bad" (Miles Davis/Duke Ellington) – 11:18 "Red" (Robert Fripp) – 11:21
=== Pharmacokinetics === Phenelzine is administered orally in the form of phenelzine sulfate and is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The time to peak plasma concentration is 43 minutes, and the half-life is 11.6 hours. Since phenelzine irreversibly disables MAO, it does not necessarily need to be present in the blood at all times for its effects to be sustained. Because of this, upon phenelzine treatment being ceased, its effects typically do not wear off until the body replenishes its enzyme stores, a process which can take as long as 2–3 weeks. Phenelzine is metabolized primarily in the liver, and its metabolites are excreted in the urine. Oxidation is the primary route of metabolism, and the major metabolites are phenylacetic acid and parahydroxyphenylacetic acid, recovered as about 73% of the excreted dose of phenelzine in the urine over 96 hours after single doses. Acetylation to N2-acetylphenelzine is a minor pathway. Phenelzine may also interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes, inactivating these enzymes through the formation of a heme adduct. Two other minor metabolites of phenelzine, as mentioned above, include phenylethylidenehydrazine and phenethylamine.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
2 [Fe(EDTA)]− + H2S → 2 [Fe(EDTA)]2− + S + 2 H+ In this application, the iron(III) centre is reduced to its iron(II) derivative, which can then be reoxidised by air. In a similar manner, nitrogen oxides are removed from gas streams using [Fe(EDTA)]2−.
The gastrointestinal hormones (or gut hormones) constitute a group of hormones secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine that control various functions of the digestive organs. Later studies showed that most of the gut peptides, such as secretin, cholecystokinin or substance P, were found to play a role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Enteroendocrine cells do not form glands but are spread throughout the digestive tract. They exert their autocrine and paracrine actions that integrate gastrointestinal function.
FARC violence decreased from 489 cases of human rights violations in 2000 to 168 in 2006, and similarly, paramilitary violence went down from 1,191 cases to 510 in the same period. However, at the same time, state forces' violence increased drastically, from 270 cases in 2000 to 758 cases in 2006. One infamous example occurred between 2004 and 2008, when military troops extrajudicially executed more than 3,000 peasants, farmers, activists and community leaders, before dressing them in FARC uniforms and claiming they were killed in battle. The FARC presented a threat to US economic interests in the region due to their repeated sabotage of the Caño Limón–Coveñas pipeline in Colombia, which is partly owned by the US oil company Occidental Petroleum. They were also Marxist-Leninist in ideology, and represented a political threat to the US. Paley points to these facts to suggest that the US used Plan Colombia to stamp out a political and economic threat in the FARC, whilst also increasing national control over local communities and activists who lived on desirable land in Colombia and needed to be intimidated- or killed- to usurp their land.
Riboswitches have been found to act as regulators of gene expression, particularly in bacteria, but also in plants and archaea. Riboswitches alter their secondary structure in response to the binding of a metabolite. Riboswitch classes have highly conserved aptamer domains, even among diverse organisms. When a target metabolite is bound to this aptamer, conformational changes occur, modulating the expression of genes carried by mRNA. These changes occur in an expression platform, located downstream from the aptamer. This change in structure can result in the formation or disruption of a terminator, truncating or permitting transcription respectively. Alternatively, riboswitches may bind or occlude the Shine–Dalgarno sequence, affecting translation. It has been suggested that these originated in an RNA-based world. In addition, RNA thermometers regulate gene expression in response to temperature changes.
=== Metabolism === Methadone has a slow metabolism and very high fat solubility, making it longer lasting than morphine-based drugs. Methadone has a typical elimination half-life of 15 to 60 hours with a mean of around 22. However, metabolism rates vary greatly between individuals, up to a factor of 100, ranging from as few as 4 hours to as many as 130 hours, or even 190 hours. This variability is apparently due to genetic variability in the production of the associated cytochrome enzymes CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and CYP2D6. Many substances can also induce, inhibit or compete with these enzymes further affecting (sometimes dangerously) methadone half-life. A longer half-life frequently allows for administration only once a day in opioid withdrawal management and maintenance programs. People who metabolize methadone rapidly, on the other hand, may require twice daily dosing to obtain sufficient symptom alleviation while avoiding excessive peaks and troughs in their blood concentrations and associated effects. This can also allow lower total doses in some such people. The analgesic activity is shorter than the pharmacological half-life; dosing for pain control usually requires multiple doses per day normally dividing daily dosage for administration at 8-hour intervals. The main metabolic pathway involves N-demethylation by CYP3A4 in the liver and intestine to give 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The peptide contains four residues in the order alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, abbreviated AEDG. The chain is linear and held together by three peptide bonds. Its calculated mass for the uncharged free form is about 390.3 daltons.
Epithalamin refers to a crude preparation derived from bovine pineal tissue, which contains many components. Epitalon is a single synthetic tetrapeptide identified from that material and produced by chemical synthesis. The two names are sometimes confused because early reports treated the synthetic peptide as an active fragment of the extract.
It has been registered for clinical use in Russia, where it is associated with a small family of short peptides. In most other jurisdictions it is not an approved medicine and is traded as a research chemical. Regulatory status varies by country and changes over time.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide built from four amino acids: alanine, glutamate, aspartate, and glycine. It is not extracted from a natural source but made in the laboratory by chemical synthesis. Its short length makes it relatively straightforward to produce at high purity.